Monthly Archives: July 2011

Does Smoke Exposure to Grape Vines Affect the Aroma of Wine?

Posted on July 29, 2011 by Becca| 6 Comments
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Wild fires are a relatively frequent occurrence during hot and dry spells, and tend to occur with greater frequency in some parts of the world compared to others.  Parts of Australia and the western United States, among others, are frequently prone to wild fires or bush fires, both places of which also are home to many vineyards.  Is there an effect of the smoke from these fires on the grapevines?  What about the wine that is produced from those grapes?

Studies have shown that postharvest smoke exposure on grape cluster change the chemical composition and sensory characteristics of the wine produced from them, which has become what is known as “smoke taint”.  What is relatively unknown, however, is whether or not smoke applied to the grape vines before harvest has any effect on the presence of smoke taint in the wines produced from the exposed vines.

“Smoking” some foods is commonplace around the globe, and often imparts desirable smells and flavors.  This results from the presence of certain chemical compounds such as phenols, carbonyls, lactones, etc.  Most important, however, are the volatile compounds guaiacol and 4-methylguaiacol, which are considered to be key smoke components.  The desired “smoky” effect in some wines result from the presence of these compounds, which usually come from oak barrel fermentation and/or aging; in concentrations of 100μg/L for guaiacol, and 20μg/L for 4-methylguaiacol.  It has been shown that of all the compounds derived from smoke exposure, guaiacol has the lowest threshold (the value of which is not completely known), thereby making it the compound of greatest importance, and likely the compound which could most easily alter the sensory attributes of the wine produced from smoke-exposed grapes.

The purpose of the study reviewed today was to address the question of whether or not grape vines exposed to smoke alter the aromas of wine produced from those grapes, and whether or not the timing and exposure duration affected the quality of the resulting wine.

Methods

 The vineyard for this experiment was located in Western Australia in the locality of Capel.  This particular site was chosen due to its’ infrequent exposure to smoke caused by fire, and its’ far distance from forested areas.  Several 6m x 2.5m x 2m greenhouses were constructed for each treatment, in order to enclose the smoke treatment on specific spots in the vineyard.  The smoke treatment was created by burning dry barley straw in a closed metal drum for 30 minutes.  Subsequently, an air pump was used to push the resulting smoke into the treatment greenhouses for grapevine smoke exposure.  The grape vines used for the experiment were Vitis vinifera cv. Merlot.

Two different smoke treatments were applied during this study.  The first was a single smoke exposure, and the second was a repeated smoke exposure for 8 consecutive exposure events.  Each exposure was for 30 minutes in duration.  Timing of exposure was tested by exposing the vines to their respective smoke treatment at 3, 7, 10, 15, 18, 21, or 24 days post-veraison.  A control treatment was also established, whereby vines were not exposed to any smoke for any length of time.  After harvest, wine was produced using the same winemaking techniques for all treatment types.

For the sensory analysis of the wines, 8 trained judges (4 male, 4 female) between the ages of 21 and 30 were recruited.  Judges were selected if they had obtained at least 100hours of tertiary wine sensory education, were regular wine consumers, nonsmokers, of good health, and had the ability to detect smoke aromas in both red and white wines at a minimum threshold level.  The wines were assessed for aroma only, and not taste.  The wines were presented to each judge blindly, with the wines only identified by number, and presented in random order.  Judges were allowed a 10-minute break after each sample tested, in order to avoid potential sensory fatigue.

Results

  •       Total soluble solids (TSS) from control vine grapes (unsmoked) were higher (22.3 oBrix) than the grapes from vines that were exposed to smoke (19.3oBrix).
  •        Vines exposed to smoke had the lowest fruit yield (11kg/vine) compared to nonsmoked controls (15.3kg/vine).
  •       Repeated exposure to smoke resulted in necrotic lesions on the leaves of the grape vines, compared to no lesions in the single exposure and no exposure treatments.
  •       Free amino nitrogen (FAN) in the grapes at harvest time was significantly higher in repeated smoke exposure vines (134.4mg/L) than all other treatments (non-smoked control: 87.2mg/L).  SO2 levels were also highest in the repeated smoke exposure than all other treatments.
  •       Fermentation rate was fastest for the repeated smoke exposure vines (8 days), compared to the control (non-smoked) vines (12 days).  All other smoke treatments were also faster than the control (10-12 days).
  •       Ethanol content was up to 17% lower in wines made from vines with repeated smoke exposure (10.6% v/v) compared to the wines made from non-smoked vines (12.8% v/v).  Wine made from grapes with single smoke exposure had ethanol concentrations between these two levels (between 10.9 and 12.5 % v/v).
  •       The highest levels of smoke-derived volatile phenols came from wines made from vines repeatedly exposed to smoke (388μg/L guaiacol, 93μg/L 4-methylguaiacol, 16μg/L 4-ethylguaiacol, and 58μg/L ethylphenol).  In control wines, the guaiacol level was 4μg/L, with all other phenols <1μg/L (or undetectable).
  •       For experiments with a single exposure to smoke, the highest volatile phenol levels were found at 7 days post-veraison.

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Sensory Analysis

  •       Wines made from grapes of the repeated smoke exposure vines had the highest level of “off-aromas”: burnt rubber, smoked meat, leather, and disinfectant/hospital.
  •       Wines made from grapes from the non-smoked vines had the highest level of “confection” and red berry fruit aromas.
  •       Wines made from grapes with a single smoke exposure exhibited both the “off aromas” and the more pleasant wine aromas.
  •       For a  single exposure of smoke, the wines made from grapes exposed to smoke at 7 or 10 days post-veraison led to the greatest level of “off aromas”.  At 18, 21, and 24 days, the more pleasant aromas were more prominent.

What does this all mean?

The primary result of this study was that field exposure of grape vines to smoke results in smoke taint aromas in wine.  The timing of the exposure is also very important, and repeated smoke exposures result in an additive effect of those compounds that are markers for smoke taint.

Why is the timing of exposure so important?  This study showed that with a single exposure to smoke on growing vines, the timing of exposure was critical in regards to smoke taint aromas in the resultant wines.  Specifically, 7 to 10 days after veraison was the most sensitive time and the time at which more smoke taint properties were observed in the wine aroma.  This timing effect could be due to specific changes in the physiology of the plants at this time, being that peak uptake of volatiles and other components by the berries happens in this window after veraison has commenced.  Alternatively, it is possible that the leaves themselves are most sensitive during this period, thus allowing them to be more susceptible to smoke exposure and more likely to absorb those volatiles that result in the smoke taint aromas in the wine.

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The presence of smoke taint in the wine from the smoke-exposed vines created “off aroma” characteristics that overpowered the more pleasant fruit tones of non-smoke exposed wines.  The judges were able to detect all four common volatiles, guaiacol, 4-methylguaiacol, 4-ethylguaiacol, and 4-ethylphenol, even at levels once thought to be below threshold, thus even a single smoke event at the right timing can have detrimental effects on the quality of the wine produced.

The increases in FAN that was reported in this study could be due to the necrotic/damaging effects that the smoke exposure had on the grape leaves themselves.  It is likely a biochemical response to the damage, meaning when exposed to damaging levels of smoke, the plant released FAN compounds to the site of origin in order to help heal the damaged areas.

The study also showed that ripening was inhibited by the smoke exposure (regardless of when and how much was exposed), which would likely diminish the aromas of ripe fruit and berry, while allowing the aromas of smoke taint to overpower the nose even more.  Also, the increased SO2 levels in the plants exposed to smoke induced stomatal closure of the leaves (aside:  stomates are where the plants “breathe” and exchange water/other gases), which could further inhibit grape development and ripening.  Stomatal closure plus the physical damage of the leaf caused by smoke exposure would result in even more physiological damage and even less ripening of the grape itself.

Conclusion

Application of smoke to grape vines between veraison and harvest affects yield, grape composition (sugar and FAN), wine composition, wine sensory properties, and last but certainly not least, wine quality.  For a single smoke exposure event lasting thirty minutes, the most damage was done when this exposure was 7 to 10 days after veraison.  For multiple smoke exposure events, the damage was additive and cumulative, completely degrading the quality of the grapes and resulting wine.

In effect, while smoking certain food items may have positive, desired effects on the resulting food, smoking grape vines has the opposite effect on the resulting wine produced.  Even though there are sometimes hints of smoky character in some red wines, even a one-time, relatively short, smoke event creates those same phenolic compounds in too high of levels that are unpalatable as a quality wine for consumption.  

I’d love to hear from you, so please feel free to comment below!
I am not a health professional, nor do I pretend to be. Please consult your doctor before altering your alcohol consumption habits. Do not consume alcohol if you are under the age of 21. Do not drink and drive. Enjoy responsibly!

Posted in Viticulture

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Does Perceived Healthiness of Wine Increase Frequency of Consumption?

Posted on July 27, 2011 by Becca| Leave a comment

As a result of the obesity epidemic, people are starting to take notice and be more aware of the healthiness of the foods they consume on a daily basis.  Studies have found that foods that consumers perceive as healthy will be consumed in much greater amounts than foods that are perceived to be unhealthy.  With all of the research done on the positive health benefits of red wine (click on the key word “health” to find related posts), and on the other side, with all of the anti-overdrinking educational campaigns, do consumers see wine as healthy, or not?  If consumers do see red wine as healthy, would this increase consumption to the point of alcoholism?  The article reviewed today aims to answer these very questions.

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This modern wave of perceiving wine as potentially healthy started back in 1992 when the “French Paradox” was first revealed.  A term coined by the authors Renaud and de Lorgeril, the “French Paradox” describes the phenomena of a low mortality rate from ischemic heart disease among French people, despite their consumption of high levels of saturated fats and prevalence of smoking.  This was determined to be a result of the “Mediterranean diet”, which included a large intake of red wine, which is rich is polyphenols and antioxidants.  Studies have also shown that these health benefits of wine and not present in other alcoholic beverages, thus adding to the perceived notion that wine is healthy. 

Even though there are scores of studies showing how wine (both red and white) provides important health benefits when consumed in moderate amounts, other studies have shown a more negative light on the beverage.  When consumed in larger amounts, studies have found negative health implications of drinking wine, which are often times opposite of the result found with light to moderate wine consumption.  Also, some studies have found that there are increased cancer risks, even with moderate alcohol consumption.

These conflicting messages of the potential benefits or harmful effects of alcohol and wine consumption led the authors of the current study to determine whether or not consumers perceive wine to be healthy, and to determine if this perceived healthiness had an effect on the amount of wine consumed by the individual.  Further, if this perceived healthiness does change consumption patterns, does an increase in perceived healthiness result in an increase incidence of alcoholism?

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Methods

A national phone survey in Australia was completed for 1,050 individual participants.  The only requirements to be a participant in the study were that the individual had to be at least 18 years old (the legal drinking age in Australia) and that they consumed wine.  The questions asked of the participants were related to demographics, amount of wine regularly consumed, frequency of wine consumption, style preferences, price willing to pay per bottle, and a 4 item CAGE questionnaire (developed for testing alcoholism).  The final question asked was whether or not participants agreed with the statement that wine was healthy, with possible answer choices being “strongly disagree”, “disagree”, “undecided”, “agree”, and “strongly agree”.

Results

Demographics]

  •       Out of 1,050 participants, 40.3% were male, and 59.7% were female.
  •        The mean age of participants was 50.9 years, with a range of 18 to 90 years.
  •        There was a very diverse range of wine drinking experience.

Perceived Healthiness of Wine

  •       Demographics (age, sex, etc) alone do not explain perceived healthiness of wine.

 

o   Even though there were no significant demographic differences in the perceived healthiness of wine, the study did find a trend that older men tended to find wine healthier than other participants.  This could be due to the known health benefits of red wine with decreased coronary disease, which often strikes older men.

  •        About ¼ of the participants thought of wine as healthy, while 47% of participants disagreed to some degree.
  •       Different levels of perceived healthiness were associated with varying levels of consumption frequency.

o   The frequency of wine consumed was significantly less for those that strongly disagreed with the statement that wine is healthy than those that agree or strongly agree.

  •       Even though frequency of wine consumption with those that agreed wine is healthy was significantly higher than those that did not agree, perceived healthiness of wine is NOT a predictor of alcoholism, based on the results of the CAGE questionnaire.
  •       The correlation between perceived healthiness of RED wine and average price willing to pay per bottle was positive (increased perceived healthiness = willing to pay more for the wine).
  •       The correlation between perceived healthiness of WHITE wine and average price willing to pay per bottle was negative (increased perceived healthiness = willing to pay less for the wine).
  •       The correlation between red wine preference and perceived healthiness was positive (increased perceived healthiness = more likely to drink red wine).
  •       The correlation between white wine preference and perceived healthiness was negative (increased perceived healthiness = less likely to drink white wine).

o   The difference between the two types of wine may be due to the fact that all the health benefits in the media are almost primary regarding red wine.

Conclusions

I find it fascinating that the consumption frequency of white wine actually decreases with increased perceived healthiness.  This makes sense, however, considering that almost all of the studies to date have been focused on the health benefits of resveratrol and other phenolic compounds that are present in red wine only.  What is less known, however, is that white wine also has many health benefits, as white wine is rich in antioxidants, which are beneficial for many reasons.  

The results of this study show that the perceived healthiness of wine does not lead to increased incidence of alcoholism in wine drinkers.  This result is very positive; however, since the study is only taking into consideration individuals who are already wine drinkers, it may not be completely representative of the adult population as a whole.  This study should be conducted again, this time with a wider range of participants that include those that drink alcoholic beverages other than wine.

Finally, the overconsumption patterns of other foods that have been shown to be healthy does not seem to hold true for wine, the reasons by which need to be further studied for a greater understanding of the mechanisms involved.

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If you have any comments/questions about this post, please feel free to comment below!  I’d love to hear from you!

Full citation of the article reviewed today:

Saliba, A.J., and Moran, C.C. 2010. The influence of perceived healthiness on wine consumption patterns. Food Quality and Preference 21: 692-696.
I am not a health professional, nor do I pretend to be. Please consult your doctor before altering your alcohol consumption habits. Do not consume alcohol if you are under the age of 21. Do not drink and drive. Enjoy responsibly!

Posted in Psychology

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Who’s Your Daddy?: Sangiovese

Posted on July 25, 2011 by Becca| 4 Comments

Happy Monday to you all!  Since I am finishing up writing a rather research- and labor-intensive guest post on another site (I’ll post the link once it’s live!), I’m going to start the week off lightly on The Academic Wino.  A new edition of “Who’s Your Daddy” is overdue, so today we’ll be exploring the origins of another grape:  Sangiovese.

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Sangiovese (pronounced san-jo-veh-zeh), is one of the most widely planted grapes in Italy (more specifically, Tuscany).  The word ‘Sangiovese’ is derived from the Latin phrase, ‘Sanguis Jovis’, meaning “blood of Jove (Jupiter)”.  There are two different families of Sangiovese grapes; a large-berried variety, and a small-berried variety.  The large-berried variety is often called “dolce” or “gentile”/”well-bread”, and also goes by the synonyms, Sangiovese Grosso, Prugnolo Gentile, and Brunello di Montalchino.  The small-berried variety is also called “forte” or “montanino”/”from the mountain/rough”, and also goes by the synonyms, Cordisco, Morellino, Uva Tosca, Primutico, San Vicetro, Sangiovese dal Cannello, and Corto di Predappio.  It is the latter, small-berried, family that is the grape used in Chianti wines.  Sangiovese is the primary grape used in Chianti, with canaiolo and trebbiano making up the rest of the blend.  In 1890, the blend was on average, 70%, 15%, and 15%, respectively, with current requirements according to law indicating that a Chianti must contain a minimum of 90% Sangiovese.

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Sangiovese grapes are slow to mature and late ripening.  As a result of having very thin skins, Sangiovese grapes are extremely susceptible to mold and other diseases, particularly in wet years.  The most successful vineyards for growing Sangiovese are in limestone soils, with hot and dry weather throughout the growing season.  It is one of the most common grapes in Italy (specifically, Tuscany), though is also found in California, Argentina, Corse, and Australia.  Sangiovese can grow in other climates (i.e.,Virginia), however, it will likely not ripen to its’ full potential, and the style of wine most likely much lighter.

Wines made with Sangiovese grapes tend to be high in acidity and high in tannin, with moderate color and an average structure.  Due to this high acidity, Sangiovese should only be made in oak barrels/casks, instead of steel or concrete, with the latter only further increasing the acidity level to a more unpalatable level.  In addition to being high in acidity and medium-bodied, Sangiovese wines exhibit a bright and fruity character, with a finish that sometimes borderlines on bitter.  On the nose and the palate, one may get hints of vanilla and sweet wood from the oak barrel, while exhibiting fruit qualities such as blueberry, strawberry, orange peel, and plum.  Sangiovese often shows floral and spice character as well, including hints of violet, thyme, and rosemary.

In more recent years, Tuscan winemakers have been producing Sangiovese blends with Bordeaux varietals (particularly Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot), which have become known as “Super Tuscans”.  Super Tuscans exhibit much more complexity, as well as increased body weight and longer aging capabilities. 

So, where does Sangiovese come from?

Sangiovese is thought to have been cultivated in Tuscany by the Etruscans.  It is thought to have been mentioned as early as 1590 by Giovanvettorio Soderini (a.k.a., Ciriegiulo), referring to it as “Sangiogheto”, which according to some historians, is the first account of the Sangiovese grape.  It wasn’t until 1772 that the word “Sangiovese” was first found to be written, though it is widely believed that the Sangiovese grape is at least 2000 years older than that.

As a result of DNA profiling by José Vouillamoz, a scientist at the Istituto Agrario di San Michele all’Adige, we are now relatively confident in the parentage of the Sangiovese grape.  So, without further ado; Sangiovese:  Who’s Your Daddy?

Sangiovese is an ancestral cross between…..

 

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    Ciliegiolo…..

                                                                          …..and…..

 

http://www.winetaste.it/admin/img/sangiove.jpg

….Calabrese Montenuovo

I hope you enjoyed this short foray into the origins of the Sangiovese grape!  If you have any comments or any requests for future “Who’s Your Daddy” posts, I’d love to hear from you!  Feel free to comment below!
I am not a health professional, nor do I pretend to be. Please consult your doctor before altering your alcohol consumption habits. Do not consume alcohol if you are under the age of 21. Do not drink and drive. Enjoy responsibly!

Posted in Genetics

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Wine Consumption and the Obesity Epidemic: Linked? Or Unrelated?

Posted on July 21, 2011 by Becca| Leave a comment

Over the past few decades, we’ve seen a tremendous increase in the obesity rates, not only in the United States, but around the world as well.  In the United States, roughly 34% of the population is obese, with at least 30 other countries having obesity rates of at least 10% or more.  In 1985, only a handful of states in the United States had obesity rates over 15%.  As of 2010, every single state had obesity rates of at least 20%.

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This growing epidemic raises countless health concerns, and many causes have been blamed (e.g. increase in Fast Food restaurant chains and mass production of food with poor nutritional content).  Alcohol consumption has been frequently linked to instances of obesity in some studies, therefore may be a major player in the epidemic we see today.  Alcohol is an enery-providing “food”, containing approximately 7.1kcal/gram (or just about 100 calories for one serving of your standard alcoholic drink of choice).  Most consumers usually add alcohol into their daily routine, instead of substituting something else for it; therefore the total number of calories ingested in a day is theoretically larger for an alcohol consumer versus a no alcohol consumer.

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Studies of alcohol consumption and effects on obesity rates to date have been contradictory, though it may be that those studies were lumping all types of alcoholic beverages together and assuming they all acted the same, whereas in reality, it’s possible that different types of alcoholic beverages would show very different results.  The goal of the study I am focusing on today was to examine the role of different types of alcoholic beverages separately, to determine what effect they may or may not have on weight gain and obesity risk in Mediterranean people.

Methods

A baseline questionnaire was given to participants, which asked questions related to sociodemographics and lifestyle choices, as well as food and alcohol intake.  Questions related to alcohol intake broke down into four categories: red wine; other wines; beer; and spirits.  A second follow-up was performed on participants, in order to determine any lifestyle changes in, or to determine any weight gain or loss.  Follow-up questionnaires were given every two years.  A total of 9,318 individuals from the Mediterranean region participated in this study.

Results

Baseline characteristics

  •       The mean age of participants was 37.9 years (+/- 11.4 years).
  •       The mean BMI (body mass index) of participants was 23.6 kg/m2 (+/-3.3 kg/m2).
  •       Alcohol consumers having at least 7 drinks per week were primarily men (77.8%), had the highest BMI (25.1 +/- 3.2 kg/m2), and had the highest percentage of current smokers (31%).
  •       Average caloric intake increased with increasing alcohol consumption.


  •       The highest energy intake (calories) and lowest dietary fiber intake corresponded to those consuming at least 7 drinks per week.

Alcohol consumption and changes in body weight

  •       For beer and spirit drinkers, the weight gain difference for those consuming at least 7 drinks per week was +119 grams per year, or a range of +27 to + 212 grams per year (so, a positive weight gain).
  •       For wine drinkers, no weight gain was found.

Alcohol consumption and risk of obesity

  •       Out of 6,480 participants (2838 were excluded due to them already being obese), at the follow-up appointments, 1,006 were identified as overweight/obese.
  •       Those consuming at least 7 drinks per week of beer and spirits had a significantly higher risk of gaining weight and becoming obese.
  •       There was no association found between wine consumption and increased risk of obesity.
  •       Those participants who changed their consumption habits toward drinking more showed a 30% higher risk of obesity than those who did not change their consumption habits.
  •        The risk for obesity was slightly (but significantly) higher in women than in men.

So, why does alcohol make you gain weight?

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There are many reasons why it makes sense that with higher alcohol consumption, weight gain is a likely outcome.  First, alcohol contains calories!  If one simply adds alcohol to his/her diet, without replacing something else, the sheer number of calories consumed in a day increases, and ultimately weight increases.  Second, alcohol has been shown to be an appetite stimulant, so the more one drinks, the more one gets cravings to eat.  Third, alcohol does not provide the filling effect that other foods have when consumed, so no matter how much one drinks, one still feels hungry.  Finally, it has been shown that alcohol affects certain neurotransmitters in the brain that control feeding, therefore the more one drinks, the more “confused” the neurotransmitters become and the individual continues to feed.

Breaking it down by beverage type

This study clearly showed that when consuming beer or spirits at least 7 times per week, there was significant weight gain among participants, and the risk for obesity was increased as well.  However, an interesting result showed that individuals consuming red or other wines at least 7 times per week gained less weight or even lost weight compared to those drinking beer or spirits.

How can wine consumption result in this opposite result than beer or spirit consumption? 

Studies have shown that red wine increases aromatase expression in adipose tissue, which leads to lower weight gain through an increase in local estradiol concentrations.  Red wine has also been shown to be capable of decreasing adipocyte size, which is beneficial for metabolic mechanisms that control obesity.

Another mechanism by which red wine shows lesser weight gain or even weight loss is through the commonly studied phenol, resveratrol.  Studies have shown that in vitro (in a laboratory setting), resveratrol can inhibit de novo lipogenesis in concert with a downregulation of lipogenic genes.  In plain English, resveratrol may act to restrict the number of calories absorbed into the system.  

Finally, the results of this study showing lower weight gain or weight loss by red wine consumers could be confounded by the fact that in general, red wine drinkers choose a healthier lifestyle to begin with, and may be significant to this result.

What does this all mean?

In a nutshell, it appears that beer and spirit consumption is associated with higher weight gain and higher obesity rates and that wine consumption is not.  Wine consumption is associated with much less weight gain, and in some cases, weight loss.  Of course, it is likely other factors are involved as well, such as dietary choice and other lifestyle decisions, which may be confounding the results shown here.  More studies should be done teasing these factors apart, to get a more accurate understanding of how different alcohol beverages affect weight gain and obesity rates in adults.

I think the results of this study are promising, in that not only does red wine provide many apparent health benefits (e.g. cardiovascular health, bone health, etc), but it does not appear to be involved in the obesity epidemic that continues to grip the world.  Just don’t forget to exercise!!

http://www.wineinyourdiet.com/mediterranean_diet_food_wine_pyramid.gif

I’d love to hear from you!  Feel free to comment below!

Full citation for the article discussed today:

Sayon-Orea, C., Bes-Rastrollo, M., Nuñez-Cordoba, J.M., Basterra-Gortari, F.J., Beunza, J.J., and Martinez-Gonzalez, M.A. 2011. Type of alcoholic beverage and incidence of overweight/obesity in a Mediterranean cohort: The SUN project. Nutrition 27: 802-808.



I am not a health professional, nor do I pretend to be. Please consult your doctor before altering your alcohol consumption habits. Do not consume alcohol if you are under the age of 21. Do not drink and drive. Enjoy responsibly!

Posted in Health

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